Motivation Essay

INTRODUCTION Motivation is the process of initiating and directing behaviour based on the persistence of effort to satisfy an individual goal or need (Petri, 1991; Robbins et al, 2000 and Robbins et al, 2001). There are two approaches to understanding motivation, each of which has theories expanding to support the nature of motivation. Content theories focuses on what motivates an individual. In contrast to process theories of motivation which focus on how individual behaviour is motivated. This essay will focus on motivation in an educational context and the importance to provide opportunities and motivation for students.The purpose of this essay is to present a theoretical overview of the key differences between content theories and process theories of motivation. Then a programme developed from a theory to be applied to an undergraduate business course at Monash University. The motivational programme will focus on improving the assessment technique used by lecturers and tutors (â €Å"teachers†) that will motivate and improve undergraduate students learning ability. The aim will be to encourage students to gain a better understanding of the core concepts of business.Assessment in universities needs to be reshaped in order to motivate students. CONTENT THEORIES OF MOTIVATION Content theories are also referred to, as need theories. That is, motivational theories that look at what individual needs motivate and direct behaviour to respond to specific goals. Many early theories from the 1950? s, include Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y and Herzberg’s motivation-hygiene theory, established core concepts which have helped explain motivation especially in an organisational setting.McClelland’s three needs theory is a more contemporary view on the content theory approach to motivation that focuses on three important needs in work situations. Each theory identifies individual needs in order to understand b ehaviour. The main factors that underlie this approach is the need to understand that individuals have different needs, and what can be offered in response to these different needs as well as the importance on the external working environment to give individuals the opportunity to satisfy their needs (Robbins et al, 2000, p558).An example of a content theory of motivation is Douglas McGregor theory of the A? A ±A? A µeconomic manA? A ±A? A ¶. He proposed 2 contrasting views of human nature. McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y suggested one negative (Theory X) and one positive (Theory Y) view on human beings. He â€Å"concluded that a manager’s view of the nature of human beings is based on a certain grouping of assumptions and that he or she tends to mould his or her behaviour towards employees according to these assumptions† (Robbins et al, 2001, p199).The negative assumptions were labeled â€Å"Theory X†, which held four dominant assumptions of wor kers. Workers dislike work and go to great strengths to avoid it. Based on this it is believed that workers need to be punished with tight control systems in order for them to achieve goals. In addition, workers lack responsibility, thus need formal directions from superiors to perform. Such Theory X workers are predominately motivated by lower-order needs according to Maslow’s hierarchy for example they need security.In contrast, â€Å"Theory Y† assumes higher order needs dominate individuals. Thus, Theory Y workers enjoy responsibility where they can exhibit self-direction and self-control. Therefore, in order to motivate workers, mangers need to provide a working environment that provides challenging jobs and minimal formalisation. Applying this to an educational context, it can be assumed that teachers can either have a Theory X or a Theory Y view of students. That is, teachers can view students as A? A ±A?A ·lazy or un-cooperative† (Theory X) OR as †Å"being clever and work hard† (Theory Y). Teachers that adapt a Theory Y approach, are more likely to be attuned to students’ needs, actively participate with students to increase student skill-development and learning (OECD, 2000). It is important for teachers to become more student-centered. Therefore assessment must â€Å"focus more on student learning outcomes and students’ attitudes about what they are learning and their role in the teaching and learning process† (Carey, Wallace and Carey, 2001).This can be better understood by considering process theories of motivation. Process theories of motivation set out to explain how people choose a course of action they will pursue, not solely on individual needs like content theories. PROCESS THEORIES OF MOTIVATION Despite the fact that content theories of motivation have helped many organisations understand employee motivation, many of their concepts alone do not provide a comprehensive understanding of moti vation. Therefore, the introduction of another approach to understanding motivation was brought about.Process theories of motivation attempt to explain the process of arousing behaviour, sustaining and regulating the pattern of behaviour (Ames and Ames, 1989). Theories include goal setting, reinforcement, equity and expectancy theory. â€Å"These theories attempt to explain why people choose to behave in a certain way and the reasons they react as they do† (Robbins et al, 2000, p558). In contrast to content theories of motivation, which looked at what initiates behaviour to satisfy a need, this approach broadens the perspective of motivation. It looks at the underlying reasoning that influence individuals to behave and respond in a certain way.Therefore, motivating students by either punishing them to perform or encouraging self-direction, the goal setting theory, identifies underlying factors that achieve a given behaviour, which is the key to understanding the process appro ach to motivation. Goal setting theory states that â€Å"specific and difficult goals, with goal feedback, lead to higher performance† (Robbins et al, 2001, p770). That is, work motivation can be increased with goal specific directed behaviour. It also proposes that difficult goals, provided that the individual has accepted them, lead to higher performance than general goals.However, feedback is essential in the achievement of specific and difficult goals â€Å"because feedback helps identify discrepancies between what they have done and what they want to do† (Robbins et al, 2000, p559). In order to gain the performance benefits of specific goals, feedback helps shape the individuals behaviour. Better still, self-generated feedback is a greater motivator as it allows the individual to monitor their progress. Robbins et al (2000) suggested that goal setting theory is best suited to cultures were there is a moderate power distance, low in uncertainty avoidance and high i n quantity of life like Australia and New Zealand.These ensure a reasonable level of independence amongst individuals and those individuals will not be threatened to take on difficult goals. Also the importance of performance is shared by all. In goal setting theory, â€Å"the characteristics of a goal and attitudes towards it are thought to be influenced by incentives, self-perceptions and the manner in which the goals are set† (Brotherton, 1999, p36). Therefore, in an educational context the teacher and student need to work together to determine behavioural strategies that will lead to performance.End-of course evaluations conducted by Monash University A? A ±A? A ·elicit students’ attitudes about instructors and the role that they play in the teaching/learning process† (Carey, Wallace and Carey, 2001). Such instruments assess students’ motivation for learning and allow for continuous course and program improvement. MOTIVATIONAL PROGRAMME Feedback fr om end-of course evaluations â€Å"usually prompts an ongoing adaptation of a course to the emerging learning needs of its students† (Panasuk and Leabaron, 1999).It was found that â€Å"students consistently expressed views that new assessment motivated them to work in different ways† (Sambell and McDowell, 1998). The aim in developing motivational programme for undergraduate students will focus on assessment reform applying the goal setting theory. This proposition will encourage students to target specific goals, in hope that it will result in higher performance. The programme will involve students in their evaluation process in order to motivate them to actively participate in their skill-development and improve learning. Every act of assessment gives a message to students about what they should be learning and how they should go about it† (Sambell and McDowell, 1998). The programme will suggest that goals based evaluation criteria will improve studentsâ€℠¢ motivation in turn achieving a greater level of performance. The programme will focus on behaviour related to undergraduate business students at Monash University. It will include a check mark grading system that will be designed around behavioural objectives. The check-mark systems sets a specific standard for document quality, and instructors give a paper a â€Å"check mark† when it meets the standard† (Sorenson, Savage and Hartman, 1993). Students are required to set their own achievement goals, in terms of grades based on their overall subject result. That way they can evaluate their progress toward their goals on their own with each assignment mark. â€Å"This necessitates defining goals for oneself, using self-directed strategies to accomplish these goals, and assessing progress† (Larsen and Thisted, 1999).The programme will involve behavioural objective questionnaires that will identify what the students want to achieve at Monash. This will include long- term goals (degree completion) as well as short-term goals (average subject result e. g. distinction, right down to improving structure of writing). â€Å"Defining tasks in terms of short-term goals can help students to associate effort with success, but of course long-term goals are also needed if students are to become lifelong â€Å"learners† (OECD, 2000, p. 31). It will also involve social objectives (develop a good rapport with teachers). Using behavioural objectives may help students organize and structure† their learning and â€Å"may produce positive attitudes toward learning† (Sorenson, Savage and Hartman, 1993). Also, they outline behavioural objectives of each student, which are associated with goal difficulty. In addition, a student performance evaluation form is to be handed in with each assignment, outlining specific goals that the essay is to achieve. For example, good use of relevant and current references, each paragraph systematically links one to the other etc.Also the overall mark the student expects on the assignment based on their effort. From this teachers are to use the check mark system and self-evaluation system to grade the work. It is very important to give feedback, especially in relation to student evaluation forms outlining their objectives. Limited feedback such as â€Å"meaning well done or â€Å"meaning re-consider, needs to be more specific. Effective feedback should provide shorthand comments, throughout the paper and on the marking sheet, clearly clarifying any issues. Such feedback is called evaluative feedback. Evaluative feedback helps the individual understand the performance information by comparing it to standards or to the individual’s own past performance† (Larsen and Thisted, 1999). In addition, it is important to direct them where possible to achieve a higher mark, therefore feedback needs to be constructive. â€Å"Constructive feedback is task-specific and focuses attention on the task† (Larsen and Thisted, 1999). By focusing on the task and â€Å"providing target objectives results in the achievement of more objectives† (Sambell and McDowell, 1998).When students use the check-mark system, they can identify what they must do to achieve higher marks. Obviously, the goal difficulty set by students varies among the constraints of his/her ability. In this programme, it is important to provide specific feedback and include student participation in selecting objectives. In light of this, between the behavioural objectives system, grading method and student outcomes, students should actually be motivated to increase performance under these systems. CONCLUSIONThe theoretical issues proposed in motivational theories such as the economic man developed by McGregor and the benefits of setting specific and difficult goals are important. The distinction on how they motivate an individual is a major influence on behaviour. Applying motivational theory to a n educational context we draw our attention toward skill development, satisfaction and achievement. In developing a motivational programme, the focus was on assessment reform focusing on undergraduate business students at Monash University. Teachers and students need to work together in assessing ones performance.It is believed that â€Å"individuals are mutually motivated to learn when they do not have to fear failure, when they perceive what they are learning as being personally meaningful and relevant and when they are in respectful and supportive relationships with teachers† (OECD, 2000, p29). Therefore, by using a goal setting approach to motivate students, student participation in selection of objectives in as â€Å"research on the motivational value of goals, both the check-mark and behavioural/performance objective systems seem to motivate students to improve performance† (Sorenson, Savage and Hartman, 1993).However, with today’s rapid change and emergen ce of new knowledge and theory, universities will have more concepts on which to build and develop on â€Å"motivating the school’s participants so as to obtain the best possible educational results† (Panasuk and Lebaron, 1999). http://www. writing-expert. com/blog/sample-essays/essay-on-motivation. html

Literary Genre

Literature (from Latin litteraetantri (plural); letter) is the art of written works, and is not bound to published sources (although, under circumstances unpublished sources can be exempt). Literally translated, the word literature means â€Å"acquaintance with letters† (as in the â€Å"arts and letters†). The two major classification of literature are poetry and prose. â€Å"Literature† is sometimes differentiated from popular and ephemeral classes of writing.Terms such as â€Å"literary fiction† and â€Å"literary merit† are used to distinguish individual works as art-literature rather than vernacular writing, and some critics exclude works from being â€Å"literary†, for example, on grounds of weak or faulty style, use of slang, poor characterization and shallow or contrived construction. Others exclude all genres such as romance, crime and mystery, science fiction, horror and fantasy. Pop lyrics, which are not technically a written medium at all, have also been drawn into this controversy.POETRY A poem is a composition written in verse (although verse has been equally used for epic and dramatic fiction). Poems rely heavily on imagery, precise word choice, and metaphor; they may take the form of measures consisting of patterns of stresses (metric feet) or of patterns of different-length syllables (as in classical prosody); and they may or may not utilize rhyme. Relaxation Through Poetry is a tool used to help someone relax in times of stress. One cannot readily characterize poetry precisely.Typically though, poetry as a form of literature makes some significant use of the formal properties of the words it uses – the properties of the written or spoken form of the words, independent of their meaning. Meter depends on syllables and on rhythms of speech; rhyme and alliteration depend on the sounds of words. Arguably, poetry pre-dates other forms of literature. Early examples include the Sumerian Epic of Gilgamesh (dated from around 2700 B. C. ), parts of the Bible, the surviving works of Homer (the Iliad and the Odyssey), and the Indian epics Ramayana and Mahabharata.In cultures based primarily on oral traditions the formal characteristics of poetry often have a mnemonic function, and important texts: legal, genealogical or moral, for example, may appear first in verse form. Some poetry uses specific forms. Examples include the haiku, the limerick, and the sonnet. A traditional haiku written in Japanese relate to nature, contain seventeen onji (syllables), distributed over three lines in groups of five, seven, and five, and should also have a kigo, a specific word indicating a season.A limerick has five lines, with a rhyme scheme of AABBA, and line lengths of 3,3,2,2,3 stressed syllables. It traditionally has a less reverent attitude towards nature. Poetry not adhering to a formal poetic structure is called â€Å"free verse† Language and tradition dictate some poetic norms: Persian p oetry always rhymes, Greek poetry rarely rhymes, Italian or French poetry often does, English and German poetry can go either way. Perhaps the most paradigmatic style of English poetry, blank verse, as exemplified in works by Shakespeare and Milton, consists of unrhymed iambic pentameters.Some languages prefer longer lines; some shorter ones. Some of these conventions result from the ease of fitting a specific language's vocabulary and grammar into certain structures, rather than into others; for example, some languages contain more rhyming words than others, or typically have longer words. Other structural conventions come about as the result of historical accidents, where many speakers of a language associate good poetry with a verse form preferred by a particular skilled or popular poet. Works for theatre (see below) traditionally took verse form.This has now become rare outside opera and musicals, although many would argue that the language of drama remains intrinsically poetic. In recent years, digital poetry has arisen that takes advantage of the artistic, publishing, and synthetic qualities of digital media. An essay consists of a discussion of a topic from an author's personal point of view, exemplified by works by Michel de Montaigne or by Charles Lamb. ‘Essay' in English derives from ‘attempt. ‘ Thus, one can find open-ended, provocative and/or inconclusive essays.The term â€Å"essays† first applied to the self-reflective musings of Michel de Montaigne–even today he has a reputation as the father of this literary form. Genres related to the essay may include: †¢the memoir, telling the story of an author's life from the author's personal point of view †¢the epistle: usually a formal, didactic, or elegant letter. †¢works by Lady Murasaki[citation needed], the Arabic Hayy ibn Yaqdhan by Ibn Tufail, the Arabic Theologus Autodidactus by Ibn al-Nafis, and the Chinese Romance of the Three Kingdoms by Luo Guanz hong[citation needed].Early novels in Europe did not count as significant litera perhaps because â€Å"mere† prose writing seemed easy and unimportant. It has become clear, however, that prose writing can provide aesthetic pleasure without adhering to poetic forms. Additionally, the freedom authors gain in not having to concern themselves with verse structure translates often into a more complex plot or into one richer in precise detail than one typically finds even in narrative poetry. This freedom also allows an author to experiment with many different literary and presentation styles—including poetry—in the scope of a single novel.Other prose literature Philosophical, historical, journalistic, legal and scientific writings are traditionally ranked as literature. They offer some of the oldest prose writings in existence; novels and prose stories earned the names â€Å"fiction† to distinguish them from factual writing or nonfiction, which writers histori cally have crafted in prose. Natural science As advances and specialization have made new scientific research inaccessible to most audiences, the â€Å"literary† nature of science writing has become less pronounced over the last two centuries. Now, science appears mostly in journals.Scientific works of Aristotle, Copernicus, and Newton still possess great value, but since the science in them has largely become outdated, they no longer serve for scientific instruction. Yet, they remain too technical to sit well in most programmes of literary study. Outside of â€Å"history of science† programmes, students rarely read such works. Philosophy Philosophy, too, has become an increasingly academic discipline. More of its practitioners lament this situation than occurs with the sciences; nonetheless most new philosophical work appears in academic journals.Major philosophers through history—Plato, Aristotle, Augustine, Descartes, Kierkegaard, Nietzsche—have become as canonical as any writers. Some recent philosophy works are argued to merit the title â€Å"literature†, such as some of the works by Simon Blackburn; but much of it does not, and some areas, such as logic, have become extremely technical to a degree similar to that of mathematics. History A great deal of historical writing ranks as literature, particularly the genre known as creative nonfiction. So can a great deal of journalism, such as literary journalism.However these areas have become extremely large, and often have a primarily utilitarian purpose: to record data or convey immediate information. As a result the writing in these fields often lacks a literary quality, although it often and in its better moments has that quality. Major â€Å"literary† historians include Herodotus, Thucydides and Procopius, all of whom count as canonical literary figures. Law Law offers a less clear case. Some writings of Plato and Aristotle, or even the early parts of the Bible, m ight count as legal literature.The law tables of Hammurabi of Babylon might count. Roman civil law as codified in the Corpus Juris Civilis during the reign of Justinian I of the Byzantine Empire has a reputation as significant literature. The founding documents of many countries, including Constitutions and Law Codes, can count as literature; however, most legal writings rarely exhibit much literary merit, as they tend to be rather garrulous. Drama A play or drama offers another classical literary form that has continued to evolve over the years.It generally comprises chiefly dialogue between characters, and usually aims at dramatic / theatrical performance (see theatre) rather than at reading. During the 18th and 19th centuries, opera developed as a combination of poetry, drama, and music. Nearly all drama took verse form until comparatively recently. Shakespeare could be considered drama. Romeo and Juliet, for example, is a classic romantic drama generally accepted as literature. Greek drama exemplifies the earliest form of drama of which we have substantial knowledge.Tragedy, as a dramatic genre, developed as a performance associated with religious and civic festivals, typically enacting or developing upon well-known historical or mythological themes. Tragedies generally presented very serious themes. With the advent of newer technologies, scripts written for non-stage media have been added to this form. War of the Worlds (radio) in 1938 saw the advent of literature written for radio broadcast, and many works of Drama have been adapted for film or television. Conversely, television, film, and radio literature have been adapted to printed or electronic media.Oral literature The term oral literature refers not to written, but to oral traditions, which includes different types of epic, poetry and drama, folktales, ballads. However the use of this oxymoron is controversial and not generally accepted by the scientific community. Some prefer to avoid the etymolog ical question using â€Å"oral narrative tradition†, â€Å"oral sacred tradition†, â€Å"oral poetry† or directly using epics or poetry (terms that no necessarily imply writing), others prefer to create neologisms as orature.

Tuition Is Necessarily for All Students, What Do You Think?

Nowadays, tuition has become indispensable for the new generation. There are many tuition centres in our country. Tuition has also become common among students nowadays. Many of them are attending tuition classes after school. Some of them have to attend tuition classes every day even during public holidays. I agree that tuition is necessary for students. It is needed in order to achieve the optimum academic performance. Tuition is an effective extra coaching for all students. Some of them are unable to catch up in school due to too much work load give to them in school. As a tuition class is smaller compare to a class in the school, the tutors can give their students more individual attention. Tutors can also target students’ weaknesses and try to improve their academic performance in school. Normally, students who attend tuition will be able to catch up and have some improvement in their studies. Besides that, the tutors can get more freedom in tuition. They do not need to follow and stick to the syllabus in school strictly. There is more variety in tuition and this can make the students gain more extra knowledge. Tutors can also set the exercises according to the students’ needs. The exercises according to their needs are very effective to help them to score good marks in the exam. Tutors can give the weaker students more remedial work to help them to catch up. On the other hand, they can give the brighter students some enrichment exercise to help them score better in the exams. Tuition is a necessity to achieve the optimum performance. It helps students to have a good preparation for the exam. Tutors specifically teacher students on how to score well in exams. The tutors will give them plenty of exam oriented questions so that they will know how to answer the questions and score good marks in the exams. Tuition has good track records. It helps students to pass their tests or exams in flying colours. Students can achieve good results by attending tuition classes. In addition, tuition is essential to balance the students’ studies and recreation. It can prevent them from wasting their time doing recreation activities such as watching movies, playing computer games, shopping and others. It can help them to utilize their time efficiently but not wasting their time for recreation or just doing revision at home. It is important in balancing their free time. Lastly, students can get many benefits from tuition. Students can deepen or enrich their knowledge about the topics on core subjects. Tuition also gives extra knowledge that is useful in the future. The students who attend the tuition classes have the edge over the others. This can make them perform well in class and score well in exams. In the nutshell, attending tuition classes I necessary to all students. It gives an edge to students who attend the classes. They are able to perform better in exams and score good results. It is important to balance studies and recreation as students will not waste their time doing something unbeneficial. Thus, I agree that tuition is a necessity for all students as it gives lots of benefits to them.

Preparation for Mentorship ( Given Scenario) Essay

Preparation for Mentorship ( Given Scenario) - Essay Example Due to his many issues, Paul is identified as having a learning disability. However, his case is neither new nor is it unique, and certain metrics can be utilized to better understand the situation. According to Duffy (2004), mentors find assessment of underperforming learners to be a substantial challenge. However, it is the role of both the health care professional and mentor to offer support to such learners, ensuring they are competent in their practice. Thus, as a mentor, coaching around Paul’s learning disability may make the process more difficult, but definitely not impossible. The mentor actually has a powerful takeaway from working with Paul in the sense he or she is able to share his experiences and coach another individual. In fact, it is overcoming his obstacles that may breed inspiration within his mentor in future scenarios. Research Aims Against this background, this work intends to critically analyse the role of the mentor in such a scenario. Initially, it wil l define mentorship, following up with an explanation of the mentor role, concluding with a critical analysis of research studying mentoring effectiveness in similar situations. Furthermore, this paper will explain the impact mentoring has on the mentor. In Paul’s case, mentoring will help him to live with his learning disability, rather than deal with it. At the same time, he will be doing more than learning, but also teaching. He will be showing the mentor that he can do what he is putting his mind to and so can they. Some of the characteristics of a mentor that will help Paul in realising this goal include the ability to initiate ideas and foster a willingness to learn in another person. While mentoring another person, the mentor is actually getting just as much, if not more, than the mentee. Paul will learn about emotional intelligence, and be afforded the opportunity to explore what that looks like in a mentoring relationship. Another characteristic is openness to divers ity. This is one characteristic that both benefits the mentor and the mentee. To the mentor, Paul is granting a unique and in-depth look into his life, allowing others to experience the diversity that he brings to various situations. What is Mentorship? To gain a clear understanding of the concept of mentorship, it is imperative to first define the terms for intents and purposes of this research. The Businesswomen’s Association (2011) website defines mentoring as â€Å"a relationship between two parties who are not connected within a line management structure, in which one party (a mentor) guides the other (the mentee) through a period of change towards an agreed objective.† This definition will be the one used for the purposes of this research. Mentoring is about providing help and support in a non-threatening way; such a manner that the learner appreciates and values the constructive criticisms and feedback, allowing it to empower him or her to move forward confident ly toward his or her ultimate goal(s). The process is also concerned with creating an informal forum in which one person can feel encouraged to discuss needs, wants, desires, and circumstances openly, confiding in another person who may be in a position to positively help him or her, or at the very least lend an ear and

Viruses are living organisms Research Proposal Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Viruses are living organisms - Research Proposal Example Viruses are not as alive as bacteria because bacteria are proven to contain DNA which is missing in Viruses. However Viruses are not dead. They may lie dormant for certain period of time and then become active when they find a host. Thus we can say that viruses are very close to life and are only looking for a suitable host. Once the host is found, viruses can multiply rapidly just like bacteria. Mahy (1998) explains, "Outside a living cell, viruses are unable to multiply; they must enter a living cell - called the host cell - to reproduce. Thus, viruses exist at the threshold of life, and their multiplication is intricately bound up with cellular processes of the host. For this reason, antibiotics, which stop the multiplication of bacteria, cannot be used against viruses, since most substances that stop virus multiplication will also kill the host cells." As mentioned above, another important distinction lies in the presence or absence of DNA that distinguishes viruses from other living organisms like plants and bacteria. For an organism to qualify as living, it must contain both DNA and RNA. DNA is responsible for heredity while RNA aids in cellular functions. In most viruses, only RNA is found while DNA is missing. But interestingly scientists have found some viruses that contain DNA and no RNA. In other words, viruses are still not living organisms in the way bacteria are because to qualify as a living thing, they must have both RNA and DNA. Absence of either one can mean sub-life existence. Viruses are also different on account of the genes present in them. It must be argued that living organisms need a large number of genes to qualify as living things. Based on this presumption, we can say that even the smallest of bacteria are more alive than viruses. This is explained by Oldstone (2000) in these words: "Viruses have relatively few genes compared with other organisms. Measles virus, yellow fever virus, poliomyelitis virus, Lassa fever virus, Ebola virus, Hantavirus, as well as the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), have fewer than ten genes each, whereas a smallpox virus may contain between 200 and 400 genes. These numbers compare with 5,000 to 10,000 genes for the smallest bacteria and approximately 80,000 to 100,000 genes for a human." (p. 9) These are the reasons why Viruses are neither called dead nor alive. They however qualify for a near-alive status because once they find a host; they can multiply with amazing rapidity and can suddenly become very active. In their dormant state however, they are nothing more than a speck of nucleic acid material. It must then be concluded that viruses cannot be called alive in the true sense of the word though they are almost-alive and act like parasites waiting for a suitable host. It must also be mentioned here that a living organism is one that is not dependent on other organism for its survival. Viruses meet this requirement to an extent because while they depend on a host for multiplication and activity, they do not exactly die when they are left alone. Instead they stay dormant till they find an organism to live upon. "Viruses never really die. If viruses are not actively reproducing, they can indefinitely maintain an inert state." (Goudsmit, p. 5) It would thus not be wrong to say that viruses maintain an almost-alive state but are not as living as bacteria or some other organisms capable of reproduction. They do not both DNA

The socail responsibility of business is to increase its profit Essay

The socail responsibility of business is to increase its profit - Essay Example Social responsibility of a business means the responsibilities which the business must undertake for the betterment of the society. These are the policies and programmes which a business must pursue for the general upliftment of the society. The business must be concerned about the welfare of their customers, employees and the society on the whole.The idea behind assuming social responsibility by the business is to help for the rapid development of the society besides increasing the profits of the business. In the ancient times the businesses were concerned only about increasing the profits. But the modern business has to undertake certain social responsibilities also. The difference between traditional business and modern business is that the former is concerned only about economic and technical objectives while the latter extends it to social responsibilities as well.There are various authors who have supported the idea of assuming social responsibilities by the business. On the ot her hand some authors feel that the question of assuming social responsibility by the business falls outside the scope of business. Milton Friedmen is of this view.According to Friedmen the political principal capitalism will be affected if the business assumes social responsibility. In a capitalist economy the business firm has the complete freedom of using its available resources in a manner it wants. But if the business firms are compelled to assume social responsibility the political principle of capitalism will be violated.... The owners will have main objective of maximising the profit. Therefore the managers have no right to direct the resources of the firm for any other purpose other than for the purpose of increasing the profits. There are various constraints which blocks a manager from assuming social responsibility. The corporate managers are trained to increase the profits and they do not have any idea about the manner in which they can improve social well-being of the people. Milton Friedmen feels that the principle of taxation would be violated if the business undertakes social responsibility, because the business will be using the money of the people for undertaking some measures for the betterment of the society. And this is similar to the taxes imposed by the government. The taxes imposed by the government and the money which the business use for undertaking social responsibility are similar because both the government and the business are using the money of the citizens for the benefit of the society. The government asks taxes from the public only for undertaking some social functions. And the right of taxes is given only to the government. So the business has no right to take money from the public for undertaking social works. If the people feel that they should contribute something for the betterment of the society they can use their own resources for undertaking these works. Friedmen believes that if we bring the concept of social responsibilities into the business it will amount to bringing socialism into the business which will be against the principle of capitalism or a free-enterprise economy. In a free enterprise economy the business firm has full freedom to use the available resources of the economy for maximising the profits. Only in a socialist

International Human Resource Mnaagemnt - Examination Essay

International Human Resource Mnaagemnt - Examination - Essay Example Moreover an important factor which causes low productivity of labor in developing nations is because they suffer from low motivation. The concept of motivation is linked to capacity and must be addressed and analyzed in all capacity levels, i.e., individual level, organization and enabling environment. Measures of incentives, like salaries, intangible rewards, secondary benefits, recognitions and sanctions are some of the conventional ways of motivating employees for increasing their performance (UNDP, 2006, p.5). Because developing nations are characterized by high supply of labor and excess competition in the labor market, an incentive system based on performance generally results in improved performance on the part of the employees through instigating motivation. Because of the high rates of unemployment in the nations, even the slightest of incentives results in employees delivering the best of their capacities to perform their jobs. In such a condition it is recommended that mul tinational organizations having subsidiaries in the developing nations incorporate incentive based system of pay for motivating employees and recognizing their efforts. There are certain cultural aspects that are common among developing nations. They are seen to demonstrate high collectivism which shows their affinity to remain and operate in groups. There is high degree of integration among the people in society which reflects through the organizations as well. Organizations can employ team work and group activities which employees are more comfortable with. However, such team activities generally undermine the individual efforts which might go unrecognized. This is the reason why an incentive based pay system must be incorporated in organizations in developing nations. Along with the group performance, such a pay system helps to recognize individual performance as well, such as none of the individual efforts go unrecognized. Also the intangible incentives like rewards; recognition plays a major role in motivating the employees. Since remuneration remains low in developing nations, cash awards are given major value in these nations. Some of the non financial incentives like rewards, gifts and travel also provide added stimulus to the motivation level of employees in developing nations. Some of the less tangible incentives which work for the developing nations are independence of working, work flexibility, career advancement possibilities, work recognition etc. Also an incentive necessarily means that the fixed salary of the employee is not dependant on the performance of employees. This provides a sense of security for the employees who can then perform their jobs without anxieties. It is important that a certain amount of the employees’ remuneration must be independent of performance while the remaining part can be performance based. This is especially applicable for the developing nations where the remuneration of employees generally remains low (Jai n & Narayan, 2010, p.7). Question 3: Analyze the ethical dilemmas associated with human resources management in developing countries. Answer: Because of the volatile and fluctuating economic and political conditions in the developing nation’s organizations face difficulty in making long term plans. Also there are state dependencies with regards to policy and financial issues. Also there are frequent changes in government rules and regulations because of which multinational organizations are confronted with